The Moon, The Wind and Positive and Negative Ions
The moon was the closest to planet earth in 18 years, a few nights ago. I marveled at its colour as it majestically rose above the Costa Blanca sea. I grabbed the binoculars steadying my elbow on a branch as I battled to keep the glorious image before my eyes from bobbing about. It was indeed a "sight for sore eyes"
Below are some interesting articles and at the bottom of the page is a National Geographic Video on the moon. We see it almost every night of our lives yet we know little about the moon and its effects.
Positive and Negative Ions
Nikola Tesla (July 10, 1856 – c. January 7, 1943) was a Serbian-American inventor, physicist, mechanical engineer and electrical engineer. Tesla is recognized among the most accomplished scientists of the late 19th and early 20th century. His patents and theoretical work form the basis of modern alternating current electric power (AC) systems, including the polyphase power distribution system and AC motor, with which he helped usher in the Second Industrial Revolution.
Tesla experimented with electromagnetic flux and studied the earth's gravitational field. During his research he discovered that the ionization of the atmosphere would alter when it was charged by radio wave transmissions in the low frequency range of 10 to 80 hertz. Tesla also discovered that he could cause both positive and negative ionization of the atmosphere by manipulating the radio frequency. Further studies indicated that with positive ionization, people and animals became tired and lethargic and with negative ionization the effect was one of feeling active and energetic.
Ions are floating in the air around us all of the time and have either negative or positive charges. Changes in their concentrations or in the ratio of positively to negatively charged molecules can have remarkable effects on plants and animals. It is known in science that ion depletion is the source of a wide range of human health problems, both mental and physical.
These air ions are important to you because if they have a high proportion of negative ions in the clusters you will feel lively, uplifted and enthusiastic. Too many positive ions in the clusters will have you feeling depressed, lethargic and full of aches, pains and complaints.
It is estimated that there are normally 1,500 to 4,000 ions per cubic centimeter. Negative ions are exceedingly mobile and the Earth's surface has a negative charge; therefore, negative ions are repelled from the Earth. This repulsion creates a normal ratio of positive to negative ions in the range of twelve to ten. Normally, more positive than negative ions exist.
Negative ions are exceedingly beneficial for a person's metabolism as a means of enhancing human behavior. They act in a complex mechanism to bring about hormone and biochemical reactions in the body and brain. It is impossible to get an overdose of negative ions, which act like pure water in washing away dirty poisons.
Generally, the more negative ions you are exposed to, the better and more uplifted you feel.
Positive ions or the lack of negative ions may cause serotonin hyperfunction syndrome or "irritation syndrome" and it involves sleeplessness, irritability, tension, migraine, nausea, heart palpitations, hot flashes with sweating or chills, tremor and dizziness. The elderly become depressed, apathetic and extremely fatigued.
Human mood disorders (depressions) are effectively treated with drugs which specifically block the re-uptake of serotonin into the presynaptic axon terminal, for example fluoxetine (Prozac) and Zoloft. This suggests that positive ions may play a part in this condition and the condition may be safely treated with negative ion therapy.
Just as good benefits are provided by immersing yourself in negative ions, bad effects come from breathing air with a high density of positive ions. Before a storm the positive ion concentration becomes more than three times the amount of negative ions. If the barometer is falling in anticipation of a storm, brace yourself. Adults, children, and animals alike react testily to such bad weather, for ahead is the kind of day that may leave you most prone to illness or accident, stupid mistakes and irrational anger. Simply, positive ions are responsible. The full moon increases positive ion ratios, which accounts for the strange and aggressive behavior noted by police and medical services. Studies show that 75% of the population is noticeably and adversely affected by positive ion ratios, while increased negative ions tend to have a calming influence on these same people.
There is an impressive amount of evidence that connects low barometric pressure before storms with erratic behavior. This is a time where the positive ions in the air outnumber the negative ions by a ratio of over three to one. More suicide attempts take place, greater numbers and more serious accidents occur on the highways and in factories, and an elevated incidence of fainting spells seem to beset people. An analysis of the records of some 2000 public school students showed that their "conduct" marks sagged noticeably before a storm.
Positive ion air encourages increased physical discomforts ranging from headaches and nausea to the familiar rheumatic twinges that precede storms. Even the healing rate of wounds has been known to slow up, while the risk of infection accelerates. Tension and depression are certainly more common.
Conversely, negative ion air - when the weather is quite comfortable - not only stimulates morale but actually relieves certain chronic diseases. Experiments with negative ionization have shown marked improvement for sufferers from high blood pressure, asthma, and hay fever.
Many psychiatrists agree that positive ionization contributes to the cracking of "fringe personalities," and sets off some mental conditions. On summer “dog days”, when the positive ion index climbs, more neurotics slip across into pathological psychosis than at other times. The incidence of sex crimes rises, as do all categories of property and personal crimes. Increased incidence of violence, road rage, theft, bank robberies, and shoplifting become serious commercial and cultural problems.
How Air Ions Act On The Whole Person
Have you ever wondered why you feel irritable, jumpy, have aching corns, headaches, and seem overly anxious during that time just before a storm? A lack of negative ions and an excess of positive ions are the culprits. The storm's onset produces an ion imbalance in the air before rain falls or snow settles down.
When relatively too many positive ions are present in the air before a storm, the positive charge is transferred in the air you breathe from your lungs to the blood, causing the blood platelets to release a hormone that quite strongly affects your moods, your joints and other physiological functions in your body. Some people exhibit arthritic symptoms. The weather really does affect your routine. The following is a description of how air ions act on the whole person; you being that person.
During fair weather the atmospheric conditions cause charged air ions to migrate, producing a flow of current. Humans have evolved outdoors immersed in this electric current, and scientists now believe that the current flow enhances various processes within our body, even to the cellular level. The same appears to be true even on the level of plants. People who work out-of-doors are at a distinct health advantage over those who are deskbound or labor inside factories.
The human body possesses a positive field, and a coupling or resonance between it and the Earth's field takes place. Such a resonance between systems brings about transference of energy and perhaps accounts for some of the "charging" effects of being outdoors during fair weather.
Studies have shown, not coincidentally, that the natural oscillation frequency of a stable atmosphere (think blue skies), seven to ten hertz (cycles per second), is the same as our brain's alpha state, our most relaxed yet alert state of being. This natural field oscillation, coupling with your own brain waves, enhances your alertness and improves your reaction time.
On the other hand, the three to five hertz waves produced by inclement weather activity were shown to cause a decrease in human reaction time. Slow reaction time may be dangerous under certain circumstances. This lengthened time that it takes for a driver to respond to an emergency situation, for example, produces a 31 - 41 percent increase in traffic accidents, quite measurable by the National Safely Council.
Much of the waste products of cell renewal are expelled through the skin. A positive electrostatic field around us draws these surplus waste ions away from the body, permitting rapid and unhampered renewal of all cells. This effect contributes to your general well-being.
When oxygen is absorbed via the lung alveolus, the ionized molecules are taken up like the normal oxygen molecules and pass into the blood corpuscles. The red blood corpuscle, whose hemoglobin is oxygenated by the air during respiration, receives also the ionized oxygen. The negative charge is carried throughout the body, whereas the positive charge may attack the blood platelets (thrombosis) which in sensitive patients releases the irritating hormone, serotonin.
Serotonin release produces dryness, burning and itching of the nose, nasal obstruction, headaches, dry, scratchy throat, difficulty in swallowing, dry lips, dizziness, difficulty in breathing, and itching of the eyes. Negative ions do not produce this unpleasant serotonin syndrome; they act directly on the respiratory enzyme, cytochrome oxidase, and promote cell respiration.
All the tracheal changes attributed to positive air ions can be duplicated by the intravenous injection of serotonin. These effects can be reversed by treatment with negative air ions.
On the basis of these facts, it seems reasonable to postulate that positive air ions are 'serotonin releasers' and that a local accumulation of serotonin in the trachea is the immediate cause of the positive ion effect.
Negative air ions reverse positive ion effects by speeding up the rate at which serotonin oxydase is oxidized. Like other oxydase systems, monoamine oxydase is thought to consist of dehydrogenase linked to a respiratory chain reaction which may include cytochromes of flavones. Positive ionization of blood increased its serotonin release significantly.
With every breath, air ions are carried into your respiratory tract to be transferred across the lungs into the bloodstream where they are taken up by the thrombocytes. If they enter as part of molecules of oxygen, the negative ions or positive ions are transported by your red blood cells. Positive ions cause thrombocytes to release the allergy producing hormone serotonin (5-HT). Serotonin acts as a bronchial constrictor and slows the clearing action of the cilia thus allowing the mucus to thicken. If you are one of those many hay fever sufferers or have some other respiratory problem you'll find that serotonin greatly aggravates your condition. There is less clearing of allergens and pollutants from your respiratory tract than from the lungs of others.
It is this powerful and versatile neuro-hormone, serotonin, which is responsible for many of the unpleasant symptoms exhibited by persons breathing positively ionized, air. Some, particularly elderly people, may experience difficulty in breathing; asthmatics wheeze, rheumatic people feel their joints ache and in general, sleeplessness or insomnia, irritability and tension are increased. Hair and skin have an 'electric charge.' Migraine patients suffer with nausea and vomiting, and optical disturbances. Heart cases complain of palpitations, heart pain and oppression. Women before the age of menopause complain of hot flashes with sweats or chills. Hay fever patients get bad attacks of rhinitis with conjunctivitis, though this may not be the real hay fever season. Giddiness, tremor, and balance disturbances may appear, as well as diarrhea and a constant desire to urinate.
All this happens from stimulation of serotonin secretion by your being exposed to air containing
high densities of positive ions. Since negative ions are able to reverse the effects of positive ions by speeding up the rate at which serotonin is oxidized by stimulating the action of monoamine oxidase, it makes sense to stay in touch with quantities of negative ions whenever possible. As you will soon learn, this is done by employing negative ion generators and/or the application of negative hydrogen ions in liquid.
In general, exposure to negatively ionized air has been shown to increase oxygenation of the lungs, increased vital capacity, and enhanced celiac activity. All types of beneficial responses take place as a result of friendly negative ions.
With an increase of negative ions you will experience a normalization of the activities of the endocrine glands, which plays an important role in reducing the effects of stress.
A shift occurs in your body's indicators of the blood acid-base balance toward alkalinity. Your pH (potential of hydrogen) should be 7.5 on the 1 to 14 pH scale. Health resides there.
A sedating and pain relieving effect is experienced if you have undergone surgery or suffered burns.
Brain wave studies show an increase in brain amplitude with better thinking ability, a shift of alpha activity to the frontal area of the brain for better conceptual ability, and a higher synchronization of the right and left brain hemispheres for a more even balance of the personality.
Your body better undertakes the metabolism of vitamins and shows an increase in both static and dynamic work capacity and endurance. All this, in part, contributing to better overall mental and physical health.
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Why does all hell seem to break loose on or around the Full Moon?
The term Lunatic is derived from the word Lunar (Moon). Simply put; Hormonal reactions to increased positive ions in the air (Full Moon Effect) cause hyperactivity, depression, violent behavior, road rage, higher occurrences of migraines and asthma. Even bees are known to sting without provocation on higher positive ion ratios.
In some middle east countries, Judges are more lenient on criminals if the crime was committed during increased positive ion wind conditions.
These periodic winds blowing in from the desert are called the Sharav. University studies in Israel concluded that increased positive ions can cause an increase in violent tendencies.
The Biochemical Reaction Just about all the air you breathe has some quantity of Aero-Ions. Ions are charged particles in the air (between a few hundred to a few thousand per cubic centimeter). Some ions are negatively charged (Negative Ions) and some positively charged (Positive Ions). After years of research around the world, Ion Scientists have determined over and over that an imbalance in the ratio between Positive and Negative Ions has a profound effect on both your mental and physical well being.
If you breathe large amounts of positive ions without an equal amount of negative ions, you will actually become lethargic and in some cases sick (high positive ion concentrations in the air are associated with the full moon). Air containing more negative ions and fewer positive ions has shown to be beneficial and without side effects. That is why negative ion generators are sold around the world.
75% of the general population react favorably to negative ions but are adversely affected by positive ions, while the other 25% react in the opposite way, finding higher positive ion days euphoric and higher negative ion days boring. These people compensate for the stress caused by positive ions with sufficient adrenaline production.
In other words, 75% of the general population goes into different ranges of depression and 25% become hyperactive. We are all affected somewhat by higher positive ion ratios. There are no side effects from negative ions.
Ion research from around the world has proven that Serotonin overproduction stimulated by higher positive ion ratios is the primary cause for many of the problems associated with positive ions:
In the 25% of the general population during higher positive ion ratios, short term increase in productivity occurs (attributed to hyperactive adrenaline production). After extended exposure or duration to positive ions, this increase in productivity quickly turns into poor performance (attributed to a weakened or exhausted adrenaline gland).
Serotonin side effects
Once the adrenaline gland has become exhausted, the body then must deal with the excess serotonin. Without adrenaline to balance the serotonin side effects, the serotonin becomes a major antagonist to both man and animal.
Recent popular antidepressants work by triggering more serotonin in the brain and body.
On the other hand, ion science has discovered that this same neuro-hormone, serotonin. Is the cause of many of the problems? As stated prior in this article, serotonin triggers adrenaline which probably accounts for the initial antidepressant effect. Once the adrenaline gland is exhausted, usually in just a few short months, the serotonin side effects begin to show up.
Lists of side effects from recent serotonin triggering antidepressants are as follows:
Anxiety, nervousness, tremors, sweating, dizziness, lightheadedness, dry mouth, upset or irritated stomach, appetite loss, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach gas, rash and itching.
Less common side effects include changes in sex drive, impotence, abnormal dreams, difficulty concentrating, acne, hair loss, dry skin, chest pains, allergy, runny nose, bronchitis, abnormal heart rhythms, bleeding, blood pressure changes, headaches, fainting when rising suddenly from a sitting position, bone pain, bursitis, twitching, breast pain, fibrocystic disease of the breast, cystitis, urinary pain, double vision, eye or ear pain, conjunctivitis, anemia, swelling, low blood sugar, and low thyroid activity.
In addition, many other side effects affecting virtually every body system have been reported. They are too numerous to mention. 3
Positive ions also have a serotonin triggering effect
Side effects from positive ions winds (such as the Chinook wind in Calgary and the Santa Ana winds in southern California) compiled by a Swiss meteorological report in 1974 are as follows:
Physical side effects: Body pains, sick headaches, dizziness, twitching of the eyes, nausea, fatigue, faintness, disorders in saline (salt) budget with fluctuations in electrolytical metabolism (calcium and magnesium; critical for alcoholics), water accumulation, respiratory difficulties, allergies, asthma, heart and circulatory disorders (heart attacks approx. 50% higher) low blood pressure, slowing down in reaction time, more sensitivity to pain, inflammations, bleeding embolisms of the lungs, and thrombosis.
Psychological side effects: Emotional unbalance, irritation, vital disinclination, compulsion to meditate, exhaustion, apathy, disinclination or listlessness toward work (poor school achievement), insecurity, anxiety, depression (especially after age forty to fifty), rate of attempted suicide about 20% higher, larger number of admittances to clinics in drug cases. 4
Positive Ion Winds
Winds with high levels of Positive Ions are present in several areas of the world, but known by different names, depending of the country, is associated with significant physiological and psychological effects upon human populations. Typically this wind is hot and dry, and brings with it, an invasion of positive ions. Listed below are several geographical locations showing the name by which the wind is known in that are 5 :
LOCATION.................NAME OF WIND
Germany........................Foehn & Tramontana
Austria...........................Foehn
Israel.............................Sharav
Egypt.............................Khamsin
Italy...............................Sirocco
Central France..............Autan
California......................Santa Ana
Argentina......................Zonda
Canada.........................Chinook
Malta............................Xlokk
Java..............................Koebang & Gending
Northern Sumatra........Bohorok
Libya.............................Sharkia
New Dehli....................The Desert Wind
Australia......................The Desert Wind (K-3)
The Israeli Army considers the Sharav wind (high in positive ion concentrations) a natural enemy of an efficient fighting force. They even have a term for this reaction called "Bedouinism" which means the soldiers cease to be alert, or effective fighters during the wind. 1
For every one day lost among the group of people working in negative ion enriched air, there were sixteen lost among the people working in normal air. Swiss bank study of over 600 employees
Bank employees went from an error rate of 2.5% before negative ion generators were installed, to an error rate of 0.5% while working in negative ion enriched air. South Africa bank with 90 employees
A four year study by a leading Israeli Doctor concluded that "serotonin is not found in the urine of "normal" people except when they are under considerable emotional stress or anxiety" 2
Studies in Geneva showed an increase of over 50% in traffic accidents during times of high positive ion ratios.
1) Soyka, Fred "The Ion Effect"( Lester and Orpen Limited, 1977),p.39-40
2) Soyka, Fred "The Ion Effect"( Lester and Orpen Limited, 1977),p.41
3) The Pill Book (New and Revised 5th Edition), Text by Silverman, Horold M., Pharm. D. & Simon Gilbert I., Sc.D., Bantum Books, 1992, p. 358
4) Soyka, Fred "The Ion Effect"( Lester and Orpen Limited, 1977),p.145-146
5) Victor R. Beasley PhD. BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS OF AIR IONS Vol 1. - "Dimensions of Electro-Vibratory Phenomena" August, 1975
6) Soyka, Fred "The Ion Effect"( Lester and Orpen Limited, 1977),p.50
Source : Policeops.com
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Lunar Influence: Understanding Chemical Variation and Seasonal Impacts on Botanicals
By Ian B. Cole and Michael J. Balick, PhD
In developing new medicinal products, investigators sometimes rely on information from indigenous healers and traditional practitioners regarding their medicinal use of plants. In several well known examples, such as the formerly popular hypotensive drug reserpine from Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae) root or the widely used cardiac medication digoxin from Digitalis purpurea (Plantaginaceae) leaf, traditional herbal knowledge has led to the development of conventional pharmaceutical drugs. More often, these traditionally used species are developed into botanical products and phytomedicines from whole-plant or multi-plant preparations. But have researchers overlooked an important part of traditional healing practices while searching for such medicinal product leads? People from indigenous cultures who use plants for medicines often have an intimate connection with the environment around them, including knowledge of seasonal patterns of plant potency. Further, some cultures take special care to plant, collect, or harvest at only certain times of the day, or during specific moon phases. Could harvest and collection practices and the influences of the moon phase affect the chemical composition and efficacy of plant-based medicines? This review outlines several cases of lunar influence on medicinal and economic plants, based both on traditional knowledge and scientific literature.
Traditional and Current Practices Relating to the Moon Across the globe, farmers, craftsmen, and healers have carefully observed the phases of the moon, especially while planting, harvesting, or collecting plants. Gaius Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), was a well known author and respected naturalist who wrote Naturalis Historia, the most comprehensive study of natural history to survive from the Roman Empire. During his life (he died suddenly during the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius), he advised Roman farmers to pick fruit at the full moon for the market, as it would weigh more, and pick at the new moon for personal consumption, as that fruit would store better. Pliny also recommended that lumber trees be cut at the new moon.1 Following this practice, King Louis XIV passed a royal order during his reign that felling of wood should only occur during a waning moon (the period of time after the full moon) between the falling of leaves and the new growing season.
Traditional practices related to wood and wood usage in Europe still exist today, especially within cottage industries and in the production of specialty products such as cheese boxes, wine barrels, wooden shingles, wooden chimneys, and wood for musical instruments.1 For example, a saying persists in France: “bois tender en cours / bois dur en décours” (“soft wood when waxing / hard wood when waning”). Similarly, in Western Jura (France), an ancient rule persists that firewood should be cut at the opposite lunar phase as construction wood.2 Whenever plant materials were required to be strong and resistant to the environment, they were harvested during a waning moon, and medicines were often harvested following the new moon during a waxing period.
It is interesting to note that such practices are consistently found with striking similarities among cultures well-connected to nature across the globe, from remote islands and dense rainforests to small villages within 200 miles of Paris. In the middle of the Pacific Ocean, ancient Hawaiians believed that tubers (such as sweet potatoes [Ipomoea batatas, Convolvulaceae] and taro [Colocasia esculenta, Araceae]) must be planted on the third, fourth, fifth or sixth day of Ku (the new moon), to ensure that the crops would grow upright and firm.3,4 Additionally, medicinal plants were gathered only during La`aukkukah, and La`aukulua, the third and fourth days following Hoku, the full moon.4 Both of these cases suggest that vastly different physiological processes were linked to one large macroscopic observation: the cycle of the moon.
Polynesians were not alone in these observations; the Maya believed that the moon controlled sap flow in plants and that the nighttime draws the healing attributes of the plant into the roots.5 Medicinal plants were therefore harvested only at specific times of the day or month. The First Nation’s tribes of Tla`amin (Sliammon), Klahoose, and Homalco lived by the 13 moons of their ancestors, a calendar that controlled all aspects of their lives, including the harvest of plants for food and medicine, as well as cultural and social activities.6 One elder of the Saanich people (Coast Salish) reported that the inner bark of red alder Alnus rubra (Betulaceae) was harvested only at high tide when it was “fat and juicy”; otherwise it was too thin (E. Claxton Saanich Nation, personal communication to N.J. Turner, e-mail to I. Cole, May 11, 2009). In Belize, Panama, and Puerto Rico, palm leaves and other resources harvested during or closely following the full moon are believed to be more resilient to insects and decay than leaves harvested “too late.”7,8
The Ketshua Indians of Bolivia, descendants of the Inca, make ploughs from Prosopis ferox (Fabaceae). These trees are harvested only during the first waning moon after the start of spring, just before Easter celebrations.1 According to recent ethnobotanical work in Kosrae (in the Federated States of Micronesia), elders have suggested that Nypa fruticans (Arecaceae) leaves should be harvested for roof thatch only after the full moon “until the moon is gone.”8 If harvested at the incorrect time, termites and other insects would reduce the life of the thatch from 6-10 years down to 2 years, a significant change in lifespan of building materials. This significant difference suggests that the chemistry and protective properties of Nypa may change drastically over the period of one month.
Folklore and traditional practices thus indicate that the cycle of the moon influences the trajectory of certain aspects of daily life, particularly involving plants and other living resources. They do not, however, demonstrate how these forces might be acting on biological organisms, and specifically how they impact the phytochemical profile of plants.
Contemporary Studies To aid in the development of high-quality plant-based medicines, research in plant rhythms should attempt to understand the forces acting on the plant, the mechanisms that yield changes in phytochemistry, and how these are affected by the natural rhythmic behavior of plants. Plant rhythms have fascinated scientists for over a century, not surprisingly due to the myriad legends and folklore about the moon from indigenous cultures going back through millennia. The earliest scientific studies attempted to understand the “sleeping” behavior of some plants whose leaves would fold flat against the stem at night and open during the day. All living organisms possess physiological processes and behaviors that follow rhythms involving a period of about 24 hours.9,10 In humans and other mammals, an internal timing mechanism (often called the “biological clock,” or central oscillator), imposes circadian rhythms on physiological, biochemical, and molecular events.10 Plants, however, are unique, and their timing control mechanism is external, specifically the environment, i.e., the sum of all of the forces constantly acting upon the plant.
About 15 years ago, Gunter Klein first presented the hypothesis of an exogenous rhythm rather than the endogenous oscillator in humans and mammals, and he was preparing his manuscript when he died. From his experiments, he concluded that the rhythmic leaf movements of bean seedlings, grown in constant conditions, were regulated by the tidal forces of the changing position of the moon in relation to the Earth.11 Barlow et al. (2008) analyzed Klein’s work and found a correlation between leaf movements and tidal forces, and together with new repetitive studies, their data supported Klein’s hypothesis.12
Numerous studies have also shown seasonal variations, effects of harvest dates, and circadian effects on phytochemistry in some plant species that could help develop improved protocols for production practices, e.g., in growing raw materials for use in botanical supplements.
The phenomenon of seasonal variation is relatively well known for many crops, especially those whose value is derived from essential oils. Many species have shown a rhythmic increase in oil production throughout the growing season and then a steady decline towards the winter.13,14,15 One study on blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium, Ericaceae), harvested biweekly in Canada,16 reported significant seasonal variation in the phenolics and anti-glycation effects. The authors recommended late summer as the optimal collection time with maximum bioactivity.
Research on St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum, Hypericaceae) herb, one of the top ten herbal products in retail sales in the United States,17 has shown seasonal variation and differences due to cultivation location. Levels of hypericin and pseudohypericin, the compounds to which commercial products are usually standardized, were found to vary from 100 ppm to 5000 ppm from winter to summer.18 This remarkable quantitative difference in compounds could account for some of the differences in commercial products whose raw materials are usually from multiple sources. Additional studies with St. John’s wort found significant variation among wild and cultivated plants sourced from around the world.19 Although numerous environmental, genetic, and physiological factors contribute to the overall phytochemical profile of plants, the harvest time could be one of the more important considerations. Studies on peppermint (Mentha x piperita, Lamiaceae) herb growing in dry regions of California found that the date of harvest was far more critical than the date of irrigation to overall quality and essential oil yield.20
A study of kudzu (Pueraria lobata, Fabaceae) root, a traditional Chinese medicine, revealed seasonal variation in overall isoflavonoid content, as well as variation among different compounds.21 This is an exceedingly valuable finding if roots are being grown for individual compounds or if manufactured products are harvested at different times and standardized to a specific compound that varies from month to month, week to week, or even day to day.
Although these studies regarding seasonal variation do not necessarily indicate the moon as the driving force behind the oil production and phytochemical changes in plants, they do show the dynamic nature of plant chemistry as influenced by various environmental factors— of which the moon might play a part.
Aside from seasonal variations, daily changes have also been reported. Studies on Virola surinamensis (Myristicaceae), an endangered tree from South America that is valued for medicinal and economic purposes, showed daily circadian fluctuations in the constituents of essential oils distilled from leaves—specifically, levels of monoterpenes dropped by 50% from 6 a.m. to noon, and then increased to their original levels by 9 p.m.22 Additionally, levels of the sesquiterpene caryophyllene in Virola doubled in samples taken in October versus those harvested in June. Daily fluctuations were also seen in the essential oil of wild basil herb, or Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae), where levels of eugenol in the essential oil were observed to drop from 98% at 12 a.m. to 11% at 5 p.m.23 In general, essential oils seem to accumulate throughout a growing season, but further research is needed to detect any lunar or circadian patterns to these studies.
Circadian rhythms are also known to control stomatal opening, gene expression, transcription, timing of photoperiodism, and to drive growth and development, although the control mechanisms remain unknown.24 Studies have found that disruption of normal circadian function in Arabidopsis thaliana (Brassicaceae) has led to reduced leaf chlorophyll levels, reduced growth, and increased mortality.25 Kiota et al. (2006) found that antioxidant levels in the algae Euglena gracilis (Euglenaceae) and spinach (Spinacia oleracea, Amaranthaceae) also followed circadian rhythms, peaking at midday when solar energy is most powerful, protecting the organisms from photooxidation.26 Many of the important compounds in medicinal plants are secondary metabolites and believed to be a result of environmental stimuli, such as pathogens and changing environmental conditions.27 Commercial cultivation of such plants would benefit from optimizing their management practices to correlate with such rhythms.
In some cases, the moon has been specifically implicated for its potential effects on plants. Zürcher observed the rhythmic variations in Maesopsis eminii (Rhamnaceae), a major tree species in Rwanda, and found that seed germination rates in M. eminii showed significant differences in seeds planted during the full moon or during the new moon.1 His study also found that speed of germination, rate of germination, and average height and growth rate of seedlings showed better results and larger seedlings if the seeds were sown before the full moon. The phenomenon of lunar effect on patterns of seed germination and initial growth rate has been documented for numerous species.28 However, these effects have not been fully understood for medicinal plants or been incorporated into modern harvest practices.
Studies have revealed that some trees shrink and swell with the tides.29 The physicist Gerard Dorda used a modified version of the Quantum-Hall-Effect (work on the QHE was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1985 and 1998) to calculate the effects of gravity from the moon on the water in living organisms and found a regular, reversible, rhythmic pattern of water in cells. This pattern showed the greatest amount of change during the new moon.30 Interpretation of these effects can be difficult, according to Dr. Dorda: “I think that this effect is not easy to understand for students of botany” (e-mail to I. Cole, February 11, 2009).
Rather than struggling to understand the complex physics behind this phenomenon, a better strategy could be to try and identify the phytochemical constituents and bioactivity that change in response to lunar rhythms. A recent study on spruce trees (Picea abies, Pinaceae) found that the overall measured volume remained constant, but a rhythmic, reversible flow between the cell contents and cell wall was causing the shrink and swell. Even in the short-term, this would mean additional water accumulating in the cell walls at certain times of the month and could have implications for food crops and in lumber technology, as this “bound water” can affect the quality of the building product. In wood technology, studies often focus on the relationship between wood and water and the felling date and drying process, all of which impact the quality and durability of the final product.31 Further studies with lumber found variations in wood density after the drying process that could be correlated to the lunar phase.19 Interestingly, these variations were more noticeable for the outer sapwood, usually consisting of phloem and metabolically active parenchyma cells, rather than the inner heartwood, which is usually dead at maturity.
A plant is a sessile organism that adapts to changes in its environment through changes in its chemistry. The forces acting on a plant are numerous and constantly changing, and dynamic changes in biochemistry are required for survival. Observing limited scientific studies or ethnobotanical accounts alone will not shed light on the complex chemical changes that take place within the organism. Comprehensive chemical profiling is needed to observe and understand possible effects of harvest practices and environmental cues. Findings such as these, together with comprehensive chemical profiling, could be beneficial to modern production practices by helping to understand the best time to plant and harvest for healthy, vigorous crops rich in medicinal constituents.
Based on our review of the literature, the authors of this article have undertaken work to test the hypothesis that the lunar phase can influence levels of bioactivity, presumably via changes in levels of chemical compounds. Working with a tropical plant species, preliminary data from bioassays have shown changes in bioactivity that correlates with particular lunar phases. We are currently repeating the experiments with a sample of plants collected in different locations.
Conclusion Through many generations, traditional cultures have learned that harvest practices, specifically the time of harvest, can greatly impact the characteristics and qualities of plant products. Wood is harvested at different times depending on if it is a “soft” or “hard” wood, and depending on if it is destined to become a chimney, cheese box, or a load-bearing beam for a building. Similarly, farmers have reported the best times to plant seeds, weed gardens, and harvest crops. These practices increase the quality of products and increase the efficiency of farming and management practices.
In the modern world of botanical products research and the quest to develop and improve plant-based medicines, numerous challenges exist. Inconsistent phytochemical profiles and commercial agriculture-based management practices of botanicals can sometimes make it difficult to prove efficacy in clinical trials and develop new commercial products. Traditional cultures often paid special attention to the lunar phase when harvesting and planting crops, but these practices have not been effectively applied to modern agriculture or critically examined by contemporary scientific research. With modern chemical tools and guidance from ancient wisdom, researchers could examine and optimize harvest practices for high quality botanical products.
Ian Cole is a research associate at the Montgomery Botanical Center in Coral Gables, Florida. Michael Balick, PhD, is vice president for botanical science and director and philecology curator of the Institute of Economic Botany at the New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx, New York.
Acknowledgements This research was supported by the City University of New York and The New York Botanical Garden Science Graduate Fellowship. Michael J. Balick acknowledges the following sources of support for his research on Micronesian plants: Edward P. Bass and The Philecology Trust, V. Kann Rasmussen Foundation, Marisla Foundation, and The Prospect Hill Foundation.
References
Source : HerbalGram. 2010;85:50-56 American Botanical Council
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Below are some interesting articles and at the bottom of the page is a National Geographic Video on the moon. We see it almost every night of our lives yet we know little about the moon and its effects.
Positive and Negative Ions
Nikola Tesla (July 10, 1856 – c. January 7, 1943) was a Serbian-American inventor, physicist, mechanical engineer and electrical engineer. Tesla is recognized among the most accomplished scientists of the late 19th and early 20th century. His patents and theoretical work form the basis of modern alternating current electric power (AC) systems, including the polyphase power distribution system and AC motor, with which he helped usher in the Second Industrial Revolution.
Tesla experimented with electromagnetic flux and studied the earth's gravitational field. During his research he discovered that the ionization of the atmosphere would alter when it was charged by radio wave transmissions in the low frequency range of 10 to 80 hertz. Tesla also discovered that he could cause both positive and negative ionization of the atmosphere by manipulating the radio frequency. Further studies indicated that with positive ionization, people and animals became tired and lethargic and with negative ionization the effect was one of feeling active and energetic.
Ions are floating in the air around us all of the time and have either negative or positive charges. Changes in their concentrations or in the ratio of positively to negatively charged molecules can have remarkable effects on plants and animals. It is known in science that ion depletion is the source of a wide range of human health problems, both mental and physical.
These air ions are important to you because if they have a high proportion of negative ions in the clusters you will feel lively, uplifted and enthusiastic. Too many positive ions in the clusters will have you feeling depressed, lethargic and full of aches, pains and complaints.
It is estimated that there are normally 1,500 to 4,000 ions per cubic centimeter. Negative ions are exceedingly mobile and the Earth's surface has a negative charge; therefore, negative ions are repelled from the Earth. This repulsion creates a normal ratio of positive to negative ions in the range of twelve to ten. Normally, more positive than negative ions exist.
Negative ions are exceedingly beneficial for a person's metabolism as a means of enhancing human behavior. They act in a complex mechanism to bring about hormone and biochemical reactions in the body and brain. It is impossible to get an overdose of negative ions, which act like pure water in washing away dirty poisons.
Generally, the more negative ions you are exposed to, the better and more uplifted you feel.
Positive ions or the lack of negative ions may cause serotonin hyperfunction syndrome or "irritation syndrome" and it involves sleeplessness, irritability, tension, migraine, nausea, heart palpitations, hot flashes with sweating or chills, tremor and dizziness. The elderly become depressed, apathetic and extremely fatigued.
Human mood disorders (depressions) are effectively treated with drugs which specifically block the re-uptake of serotonin into the presynaptic axon terminal, for example fluoxetine (Prozac) and Zoloft. This suggests that positive ions may play a part in this condition and the condition may be safely treated with negative ion therapy.
Just as good benefits are provided by immersing yourself in negative ions, bad effects come from breathing air with a high density of positive ions. Before a storm the positive ion concentration becomes more than three times the amount of negative ions. If the barometer is falling in anticipation of a storm, brace yourself. Adults, children, and animals alike react testily to such bad weather, for ahead is the kind of day that may leave you most prone to illness or accident, stupid mistakes and irrational anger. Simply, positive ions are responsible. The full moon increases positive ion ratios, which accounts for the strange and aggressive behavior noted by police and medical services. Studies show that 75% of the population is noticeably and adversely affected by positive ion ratios, while increased negative ions tend to have a calming influence on these same people.
There is an impressive amount of evidence that connects low barometric pressure before storms with erratic behavior. This is a time where the positive ions in the air outnumber the negative ions by a ratio of over three to one. More suicide attempts take place, greater numbers and more serious accidents occur on the highways and in factories, and an elevated incidence of fainting spells seem to beset people. An analysis of the records of some 2000 public school students showed that their "conduct" marks sagged noticeably before a storm.
Positive ion air encourages increased physical discomforts ranging from headaches and nausea to the familiar rheumatic twinges that precede storms. Even the healing rate of wounds has been known to slow up, while the risk of infection accelerates. Tension and depression are certainly more common.
Conversely, negative ion air - when the weather is quite comfortable - not only stimulates morale but actually relieves certain chronic diseases. Experiments with negative ionization have shown marked improvement for sufferers from high blood pressure, asthma, and hay fever.
Many psychiatrists agree that positive ionization contributes to the cracking of "fringe personalities," and sets off some mental conditions. On summer “dog days”, when the positive ion index climbs, more neurotics slip across into pathological psychosis than at other times. The incidence of sex crimes rises, as do all categories of property and personal crimes. Increased incidence of violence, road rage, theft, bank robberies, and shoplifting become serious commercial and cultural problems.
How Air Ions Act On The Whole Person
Have you ever wondered why you feel irritable, jumpy, have aching corns, headaches, and seem overly anxious during that time just before a storm? A lack of negative ions and an excess of positive ions are the culprits. The storm's onset produces an ion imbalance in the air before rain falls or snow settles down.
When relatively too many positive ions are present in the air before a storm, the positive charge is transferred in the air you breathe from your lungs to the blood, causing the blood platelets to release a hormone that quite strongly affects your moods, your joints and other physiological functions in your body. Some people exhibit arthritic symptoms. The weather really does affect your routine. The following is a description of how air ions act on the whole person; you being that person.
During fair weather the atmospheric conditions cause charged air ions to migrate, producing a flow of current. Humans have evolved outdoors immersed in this electric current, and scientists now believe that the current flow enhances various processes within our body, even to the cellular level. The same appears to be true even on the level of plants. People who work out-of-doors are at a distinct health advantage over those who are deskbound or labor inside factories.
The human body possesses a positive field, and a coupling or resonance between it and the Earth's field takes place. Such a resonance between systems brings about transference of energy and perhaps accounts for some of the "charging" effects of being outdoors during fair weather.
Studies have shown, not coincidentally, that the natural oscillation frequency of a stable atmosphere (think blue skies), seven to ten hertz (cycles per second), is the same as our brain's alpha state, our most relaxed yet alert state of being. This natural field oscillation, coupling with your own brain waves, enhances your alertness and improves your reaction time.
On the other hand, the three to five hertz waves produced by inclement weather activity were shown to cause a decrease in human reaction time. Slow reaction time may be dangerous under certain circumstances. This lengthened time that it takes for a driver to respond to an emergency situation, for example, produces a 31 - 41 percent increase in traffic accidents, quite measurable by the National Safely Council.
Much of the waste products of cell renewal are expelled through the skin. A positive electrostatic field around us draws these surplus waste ions away from the body, permitting rapid and unhampered renewal of all cells. This effect contributes to your general well-being.
When oxygen is absorbed via the lung alveolus, the ionized molecules are taken up like the normal oxygen molecules and pass into the blood corpuscles. The red blood corpuscle, whose hemoglobin is oxygenated by the air during respiration, receives also the ionized oxygen. The negative charge is carried throughout the body, whereas the positive charge may attack the blood platelets (thrombosis) which in sensitive patients releases the irritating hormone, serotonin.
Serotonin release produces dryness, burning and itching of the nose, nasal obstruction, headaches, dry, scratchy throat, difficulty in swallowing, dry lips, dizziness, difficulty in breathing, and itching of the eyes. Negative ions do not produce this unpleasant serotonin syndrome; they act directly on the respiratory enzyme, cytochrome oxidase, and promote cell respiration.
All the tracheal changes attributed to positive air ions can be duplicated by the intravenous injection of serotonin. These effects can be reversed by treatment with negative air ions.
On the basis of these facts, it seems reasonable to postulate that positive air ions are 'serotonin releasers' and that a local accumulation of serotonin in the trachea is the immediate cause of the positive ion effect.
Negative air ions reverse positive ion effects by speeding up the rate at which serotonin oxydase is oxidized. Like other oxydase systems, monoamine oxydase is thought to consist of dehydrogenase linked to a respiratory chain reaction which may include cytochromes of flavones. Positive ionization of blood increased its serotonin release significantly.
With every breath, air ions are carried into your respiratory tract to be transferred across the lungs into the bloodstream where they are taken up by the thrombocytes. If they enter as part of molecules of oxygen, the negative ions or positive ions are transported by your red blood cells. Positive ions cause thrombocytes to release the allergy producing hormone serotonin (5-HT). Serotonin acts as a bronchial constrictor and slows the clearing action of the cilia thus allowing the mucus to thicken. If you are one of those many hay fever sufferers or have some other respiratory problem you'll find that serotonin greatly aggravates your condition. There is less clearing of allergens and pollutants from your respiratory tract than from the lungs of others.
It is this powerful and versatile neuro-hormone, serotonin, which is responsible for many of the unpleasant symptoms exhibited by persons breathing positively ionized, air. Some, particularly elderly people, may experience difficulty in breathing; asthmatics wheeze, rheumatic people feel their joints ache and in general, sleeplessness or insomnia, irritability and tension are increased. Hair and skin have an 'electric charge.' Migraine patients suffer with nausea and vomiting, and optical disturbances. Heart cases complain of palpitations, heart pain and oppression. Women before the age of menopause complain of hot flashes with sweats or chills. Hay fever patients get bad attacks of rhinitis with conjunctivitis, though this may not be the real hay fever season. Giddiness, tremor, and balance disturbances may appear, as well as diarrhea and a constant desire to urinate.
All this happens from stimulation of serotonin secretion by your being exposed to air containing
high densities of positive ions. Since negative ions are able to reverse the effects of positive ions by speeding up the rate at which serotonin is oxidized by stimulating the action of monoamine oxidase, it makes sense to stay in touch with quantities of negative ions whenever possible. As you will soon learn, this is done by employing negative ion generators and/or the application of negative hydrogen ions in liquid.
In general, exposure to negatively ionized air has been shown to increase oxygenation of the lungs, increased vital capacity, and enhanced celiac activity. All types of beneficial responses take place as a result of friendly negative ions.
With an increase of negative ions you will experience a normalization of the activities of the endocrine glands, which plays an important role in reducing the effects of stress.
A shift occurs in your body's indicators of the blood acid-base balance toward alkalinity. Your pH (potential of hydrogen) should be 7.5 on the 1 to 14 pH scale. Health resides there.
A sedating and pain relieving effect is experienced if you have undergone surgery or suffered burns.
Brain wave studies show an increase in brain amplitude with better thinking ability, a shift of alpha activity to the frontal area of the brain for better conceptual ability, and a higher synchronization of the right and left brain hemispheres for a more even balance of the personality.
Your body better undertakes the metabolism of vitamins and shows an increase in both static and dynamic work capacity and endurance. All this, in part, contributing to better overall mental and physical health.
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Why does all hell seem to break loose on or around the Full Moon?
The term Lunatic is derived from the word Lunar (Moon). Simply put; Hormonal reactions to increased positive ions in the air (Full Moon Effect) cause hyperactivity, depression, violent behavior, road rage, higher occurrences of migraines and asthma. Even bees are known to sting without provocation on higher positive ion ratios.
In some middle east countries, Judges are more lenient on criminals if the crime was committed during increased positive ion wind conditions.
These periodic winds blowing in from the desert are called the Sharav. University studies in Israel concluded that increased positive ions can cause an increase in violent tendencies.
The Biochemical Reaction Just about all the air you breathe has some quantity of Aero-Ions. Ions are charged particles in the air (between a few hundred to a few thousand per cubic centimeter). Some ions are negatively charged (Negative Ions) and some positively charged (Positive Ions). After years of research around the world, Ion Scientists have determined over and over that an imbalance in the ratio between Positive and Negative Ions has a profound effect on both your mental and physical well being.
If you breathe large amounts of positive ions without an equal amount of negative ions, you will actually become lethargic and in some cases sick (high positive ion concentrations in the air are associated with the full moon). Air containing more negative ions and fewer positive ions has shown to be beneficial and without side effects. That is why negative ion generators are sold around the world.
75% of the general population react favorably to negative ions but are adversely affected by positive ions, while the other 25% react in the opposite way, finding higher positive ion days euphoric and higher negative ion days boring. These people compensate for the stress caused by positive ions with sufficient adrenaline production.
In other words, 75% of the general population goes into different ranges of depression and 25% become hyperactive. We are all affected somewhat by higher positive ion ratios. There are no side effects from negative ions.
Ion research from around the world has proven that Serotonin overproduction stimulated by higher positive ion ratios is the primary cause for many of the problems associated with positive ions:
In the 25% of the general population during higher positive ion ratios, short term increase in productivity occurs (attributed to hyperactive adrenaline production). After extended exposure or duration to positive ions, this increase in productivity quickly turns into poor performance (attributed to a weakened or exhausted adrenaline gland).
Serotonin side effects
Once the adrenaline gland has become exhausted, the body then must deal with the excess serotonin. Without adrenaline to balance the serotonin side effects, the serotonin becomes a major antagonist to both man and animal.
Recent popular antidepressants work by triggering more serotonin in the brain and body.
On the other hand, ion science has discovered that this same neuro-hormone, serotonin. Is the cause of many of the problems? As stated prior in this article, serotonin triggers adrenaline which probably accounts for the initial antidepressant effect. Once the adrenaline gland is exhausted, usually in just a few short months, the serotonin side effects begin to show up.
Lists of side effects from recent serotonin triggering antidepressants are as follows:
Anxiety, nervousness, tremors, sweating, dizziness, lightheadedness, dry mouth, upset or irritated stomach, appetite loss, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach gas, rash and itching.
Less common side effects include changes in sex drive, impotence, abnormal dreams, difficulty concentrating, acne, hair loss, dry skin, chest pains, allergy, runny nose, bronchitis, abnormal heart rhythms, bleeding, blood pressure changes, headaches, fainting when rising suddenly from a sitting position, bone pain, bursitis, twitching, breast pain, fibrocystic disease of the breast, cystitis, urinary pain, double vision, eye or ear pain, conjunctivitis, anemia, swelling, low blood sugar, and low thyroid activity.
In addition, many other side effects affecting virtually every body system have been reported. They are too numerous to mention. 3
Positive ions also have a serotonin triggering effect
Side effects from positive ions winds (such as the Chinook wind in Calgary and the Santa Ana winds in southern California) compiled by a Swiss meteorological report in 1974 are as follows:
Physical side effects: Body pains, sick headaches, dizziness, twitching of the eyes, nausea, fatigue, faintness, disorders in saline (salt) budget with fluctuations in electrolytical metabolism (calcium and magnesium; critical for alcoholics), water accumulation, respiratory difficulties, allergies, asthma, heart and circulatory disorders (heart attacks approx. 50% higher) low blood pressure, slowing down in reaction time, more sensitivity to pain, inflammations, bleeding embolisms of the lungs, and thrombosis.
Psychological side effects: Emotional unbalance, irritation, vital disinclination, compulsion to meditate, exhaustion, apathy, disinclination or listlessness toward work (poor school achievement), insecurity, anxiety, depression (especially after age forty to fifty), rate of attempted suicide about 20% higher, larger number of admittances to clinics in drug cases. 4
Positive Ion Winds
Winds with high levels of Positive Ions are present in several areas of the world, but known by different names, depending of the country, is associated with significant physiological and psychological effects upon human populations. Typically this wind is hot and dry, and brings with it, an invasion of positive ions. Listed below are several geographical locations showing the name by which the wind is known in that are 5 :
LOCATION.................NAME OF WIND
Germany........................Foehn & Tramontana
Austria...........................Foehn
Israel.............................Sharav
Egypt.............................Khamsin
Italy...............................Sirocco
Central France..............Autan
California......................Santa Ana
Argentina......................Zonda
Canada.........................Chinook
Malta............................Xlokk
Java..............................Koebang & Gending
Northern Sumatra........Bohorok
Libya.............................Sharkia
New Dehli....................The Desert Wind
Australia......................The Desert Wind (K-3)
The Israeli Army considers the Sharav wind (high in positive ion concentrations) a natural enemy of an efficient fighting force. They even have a term for this reaction called "Bedouinism" which means the soldiers cease to be alert, or effective fighters during the wind. 1
For every one day lost among the group of people working in negative ion enriched air, there were sixteen lost among the people working in normal air. Swiss bank study of over 600 employees
Bank employees went from an error rate of 2.5% before negative ion generators were installed, to an error rate of 0.5% while working in negative ion enriched air. South Africa bank with 90 employees
A four year study by a leading Israeli Doctor concluded that "serotonin is not found in the urine of "normal" people except when they are under considerable emotional stress or anxiety" 2
Studies in Geneva showed an increase of over 50% in traffic accidents during times of high positive ion ratios.
1) Soyka, Fred "The Ion Effect"( Lester and Orpen Limited, 1977),p.39-40
2) Soyka, Fred "The Ion Effect"( Lester and Orpen Limited, 1977),p.41
3) The Pill Book (New and Revised 5th Edition), Text by Silverman, Horold M., Pharm. D. & Simon Gilbert I., Sc.D., Bantum Books, 1992, p. 358
4) Soyka, Fred "The Ion Effect"( Lester and Orpen Limited, 1977),p.145-146
5) Victor R. Beasley PhD. BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS OF AIR IONS Vol 1. - "Dimensions of Electro-Vibratory Phenomena" August, 1975
6) Soyka, Fred "The Ion Effect"( Lester and Orpen Limited, 1977),p.50
Source : Policeops.com
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Lunar Influence: Understanding Chemical Variation and Seasonal Impacts on Botanicals
By Ian B. Cole and Michael J. Balick, PhD
In developing new medicinal products, investigators sometimes rely on information from indigenous healers and traditional practitioners regarding their medicinal use of plants. In several well known examples, such as the formerly popular hypotensive drug reserpine from Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae) root or the widely used cardiac medication digoxin from Digitalis purpurea (Plantaginaceae) leaf, traditional herbal knowledge has led to the development of conventional pharmaceutical drugs. More often, these traditionally used species are developed into botanical products and phytomedicines from whole-plant or multi-plant preparations. But have researchers overlooked an important part of traditional healing practices while searching for such medicinal product leads? People from indigenous cultures who use plants for medicines often have an intimate connection with the environment around them, including knowledge of seasonal patterns of plant potency. Further, some cultures take special care to plant, collect, or harvest at only certain times of the day, or during specific moon phases. Could harvest and collection practices and the influences of the moon phase affect the chemical composition and efficacy of plant-based medicines? This review outlines several cases of lunar influence on medicinal and economic plants, based both on traditional knowledge and scientific literature.
Traditional and Current Practices Relating to the Moon Across the globe, farmers, craftsmen, and healers have carefully observed the phases of the moon, especially while planting, harvesting, or collecting plants. Gaius Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), was a well known author and respected naturalist who wrote Naturalis Historia, the most comprehensive study of natural history to survive from the Roman Empire. During his life (he died suddenly during the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius), he advised Roman farmers to pick fruit at the full moon for the market, as it would weigh more, and pick at the new moon for personal consumption, as that fruit would store better. Pliny also recommended that lumber trees be cut at the new moon.1 Following this practice, King Louis XIV passed a royal order during his reign that felling of wood should only occur during a waning moon (the period of time after the full moon) between the falling of leaves and the new growing season.
Traditional practices related to wood and wood usage in Europe still exist today, especially within cottage industries and in the production of specialty products such as cheese boxes, wine barrels, wooden shingles, wooden chimneys, and wood for musical instruments.1 For example, a saying persists in France: “bois tender en cours / bois dur en décours” (“soft wood when waxing / hard wood when waning”). Similarly, in Western Jura (France), an ancient rule persists that firewood should be cut at the opposite lunar phase as construction wood.2 Whenever plant materials were required to be strong and resistant to the environment, they were harvested during a waning moon, and medicines were often harvested following the new moon during a waxing period.
It is interesting to note that such practices are consistently found with striking similarities among cultures well-connected to nature across the globe, from remote islands and dense rainforests to small villages within 200 miles of Paris. In the middle of the Pacific Ocean, ancient Hawaiians believed that tubers (such as sweet potatoes [Ipomoea batatas, Convolvulaceae] and taro [Colocasia esculenta, Araceae]) must be planted on the third, fourth, fifth or sixth day of Ku (the new moon), to ensure that the crops would grow upright and firm.3,4 Additionally, medicinal plants were gathered only during La`aukkukah, and La`aukulua, the third and fourth days following Hoku, the full moon.4 Both of these cases suggest that vastly different physiological processes were linked to one large macroscopic observation: the cycle of the moon.
Polynesians were not alone in these observations; the Maya believed that the moon controlled sap flow in plants and that the nighttime draws the healing attributes of the plant into the roots.5 Medicinal plants were therefore harvested only at specific times of the day or month. The First Nation’s tribes of Tla`amin (Sliammon), Klahoose, and Homalco lived by the 13 moons of their ancestors, a calendar that controlled all aspects of their lives, including the harvest of plants for food and medicine, as well as cultural and social activities.6 One elder of the Saanich people (Coast Salish) reported that the inner bark of red alder Alnus rubra (Betulaceae) was harvested only at high tide when it was “fat and juicy”; otherwise it was too thin (E. Claxton Saanich Nation, personal communication to N.J. Turner, e-mail to I. Cole, May 11, 2009). In Belize, Panama, and Puerto Rico, palm leaves and other resources harvested during or closely following the full moon are believed to be more resilient to insects and decay than leaves harvested “too late.”7,8
The Ketshua Indians of Bolivia, descendants of the Inca, make ploughs from Prosopis ferox (Fabaceae). These trees are harvested only during the first waning moon after the start of spring, just before Easter celebrations.1 According to recent ethnobotanical work in Kosrae (in the Federated States of Micronesia), elders have suggested that Nypa fruticans (Arecaceae) leaves should be harvested for roof thatch only after the full moon “until the moon is gone.”8 If harvested at the incorrect time, termites and other insects would reduce the life of the thatch from 6-10 years down to 2 years, a significant change in lifespan of building materials. This significant difference suggests that the chemistry and protective properties of Nypa may change drastically over the period of one month.
Folklore and traditional practices thus indicate that the cycle of the moon influences the trajectory of certain aspects of daily life, particularly involving plants and other living resources. They do not, however, demonstrate how these forces might be acting on biological organisms, and specifically how they impact the phytochemical profile of plants.
Contemporary Studies To aid in the development of high-quality plant-based medicines, research in plant rhythms should attempt to understand the forces acting on the plant, the mechanisms that yield changes in phytochemistry, and how these are affected by the natural rhythmic behavior of plants. Plant rhythms have fascinated scientists for over a century, not surprisingly due to the myriad legends and folklore about the moon from indigenous cultures going back through millennia. The earliest scientific studies attempted to understand the “sleeping” behavior of some plants whose leaves would fold flat against the stem at night and open during the day. All living organisms possess physiological processes and behaviors that follow rhythms involving a period of about 24 hours.9,10 In humans and other mammals, an internal timing mechanism (often called the “biological clock,” or central oscillator), imposes circadian rhythms on physiological, biochemical, and molecular events.10 Plants, however, are unique, and their timing control mechanism is external, specifically the environment, i.e., the sum of all of the forces constantly acting upon the plant.
About 15 years ago, Gunter Klein first presented the hypothesis of an exogenous rhythm rather than the endogenous oscillator in humans and mammals, and he was preparing his manuscript when he died. From his experiments, he concluded that the rhythmic leaf movements of bean seedlings, grown in constant conditions, were regulated by the tidal forces of the changing position of the moon in relation to the Earth.11 Barlow et al. (2008) analyzed Klein’s work and found a correlation between leaf movements and tidal forces, and together with new repetitive studies, their data supported Klein’s hypothesis.12
Numerous studies have also shown seasonal variations, effects of harvest dates, and circadian effects on phytochemistry in some plant species that could help develop improved protocols for production practices, e.g., in growing raw materials for use in botanical supplements.
The phenomenon of seasonal variation is relatively well known for many crops, especially those whose value is derived from essential oils. Many species have shown a rhythmic increase in oil production throughout the growing season and then a steady decline towards the winter.13,14,15 One study on blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium, Ericaceae), harvested biweekly in Canada,16 reported significant seasonal variation in the phenolics and anti-glycation effects. The authors recommended late summer as the optimal collection time with maximum bioactivity.
Research on St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum, Hypericaceae) herb, one of the top ten herbal products in retail sales in the United States,17 has shown seasonal variation and differences due to cultivation location. Levels of hypericin and pseudohypericin, the compounds to which commercial products are usually standardized, were found to vary from 100 ppm to 5000 ppm from winter to summer.18 This remarkable quantitative difference in compounds could account for some of the differences in commercial products whose raw materials are usually from multiple sources. Additional studies with St. John’s wort found significant variation among wild and cultivated plants sourced from around the world.19 Although numerous environmental, genetic, and physiological factors contribute to the overall phytochemical profile of plants, the harvest time could be one of the more important considerations. Studies on peppermint (Mentha x piperita, Lamiaceae) herb growing in dry regions of California found that the date of harvest was far more critical than the date of irrigation to overall quality and essential oil yield.20
A study of kudzu (Pueraria lobata, Fabaceae) root, a traditional Chinese medicine, revealed seasonal variation in overall isoflavonoid content, as well as variation among different compounds.21 This is an exceedingly valuable finding if roots are being grown for individual compounds or if manufactured products are harvested at different times and standardized to a specific compound that varies from month to month, week to week, or even day to day.
Although these studies regarding seasonal variation do not necessarily indicate the moon as the driving force behind the oil production and phytochemical changes in plants, they do show the dynamic nature of plant chemistry as influenced by various environmental factors— of which the moon might play a part.
Aside from seasonal variations, daily changes have also been reported. Studies on Virola surinamensis (Myristicaceae), an endangered tree from South America that is valued for medicinal and economic purposes, showed daily circadian fluctuations in the constituents of essential oils distilled from leaves—specifically, levels of monoterpenes dropped by 50% from 6 a.m. to noon, and then increased to their original levels by 9 p.m.22 Additionally, levels of the sesquiterpene caryophyllene in Virola doubled in samples taken in October versus those harvested in June. Daily fluctuations were also seen in the essential oil of wild basil herb, or Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae), where levels of eugenol in the essential oil were observed to drop from 98% at 12 a.m. to 11% at 5 p.m.23 In general, essential oils seem to accumulate throughout a growing season, but further research is needed to detect any lunar or circadian patterns to these studies.
Circadian rhythms are also known to control stomatal opening, gene expression, transcription, timing of photoperiodism, and to drive growth and development, although the control mechanisms remain unknown.24 Studies have found that disruption of normal circadian function in Arabidopsis thaliana (Brassicaceae) has led to reduced leaf chlorophyll levels, reduced growth, and increased mortality.25 Kiota et al. (2006) found that antioxidant levels in the algae Euglena gracilis (Euglenaceae) and spinach (Spinacia oleracea, Amaranthaceae) also followed circadian rhythms, peaking at midday when solar energy is most powerful, protecting the organisms from photooxidation.26 Many of the important compounds in medicinal plants are secondary metabolites and believed to be a result of environmental stimuli, such as pathogens and changing environmental conditions.27 Commercial cultivation of such plants would benefit from optimizing their management practices to correlate with such rhythms.
In some cases, the moon has been specifically implicated for its potential effects on plants. Zürcher observed the rhythmic variations in Maesopsis eminii (Rhamnaceae), a major tree species in Rwanda, and found that seed germination rates in M. eminii showed significant differences in seeds planted during the full moon or during the new moon.1 His study also found that speed of germination, rate of germination, and average height and growth rate of seedlings showed better results and larger seedlings if the seeds were sown before the full moon. The phenomenon of lunar effect on patterns of seed germination and initial growth rate has been documented for numerous species.28 However, these effects have not been fully understood for medicinal plants or been incorporated into modern harvest practices.
Studies have revealed that some trees shrink and swell with the tides.29 The physicist Gerard Dorda used a modified version of the Quantum-Hall-Effect (work on the QHE was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1985 and 1998) to calculate the effects of gravity from the moon on the water in living organisms and found a regular, reversible, rhythmic pattern of water in cells. This pattern showed the greatest amount of change during the new moon.30 Interpretation of these effects can be difficult, according to Dr. Dorda: “I think that this effect is not easy to understand for students of botany” (e-mail to I. Cole, February 11, 2009).
Rather than struggling to understand the complex physics behind this phenomenon, a better strategy could be to try and identify the phytochemical constituents and bioactivity that change in response to lunar rhythms. A recent study on spruce trees (Picea abies, Pinaceae) found that the overall measured volume remained constant, but a rhythmic, reversible flow between the cell contents and cell wall was causing the shrink and swell. Even in the short-term, this would mean additional water accumulating in the cell walls at certain times of the month and could have implications for food crops and in lumber technology, as this “bound water” can affect the quality of the building product. In wood technology, studies often focus on the relationship between wood and water and the felling date and drying process, all of which impact the quality and durability of the final product.31 Further studies with lumber found variations in wood density after the drying process that could be correlated to the lunar phase.19 Interestingly, these variations were more noticeable for the outer sapwood, usually consisting of phloem and metabolically active parenchyma cells, rather than the inner heartwood, which is usually dead at maturity.
A plant is a sessile organism that adapts to changes in its environment through changes in its chemistry. The forces acting on a plant are numerous and constantly changing, and dynamic changes in biochemistry are required for survival. Observing limited scientific studies or ethnobotanical accounts alone will not shed light on the complex chemical changes that take place within the organism. Comprehensive chemical profiling is needed to observe and understand possible effects of harvest practices and environmental cues. Findings such as these, together with comprehensive chemical profiling, could be beneficial to modern production practices by helping to understand the best time to plant and harvest for healthy, vigorous crops rich in medicinal constituents.
Based on our review of the literature, the authors of this article have undertaken work to test the hypothesis that the lunar phase can influence levels of bioactivity, presumably via changes in levels of chemical compounds. Working with a tropical plant species, preliminary data from bioassays have shown changes in bioactivity that correlates with particular lunar phases. We are currently repeating the experiments with a sample of plants collected in different locations.
Conclusion Through many generations, traditional cultures have learned that harvest practices, specifically the time of harvest, can greatly impact the characteristics and qualities of plant products. Wood is harvested at different times depending on if it is a “soft” or “hard” wood, and depending on if it is destined to become a chimney, cheese box, or a load-bearing beam for a building. Similarly, farmers have reported the best times to plant seeds, weed gardens, and harvest crops. These practices increase the quality of products and increase the efficiency of farming and management practices.
In the modern world of botanical products research and the quest to develop and improve plant-based medicines, numerous challenges exist. Inconsistent phytochemical profiles and commercial agriculture-based management practices of botanicals can sometimes make it difficult to prove efficacy in clinical trials and develop new commercial products. Traditional cultures often paid special attention to the lunar phase when harvesting and planting crops, but these practices have not been effectively applied to modern agriculture or critically examined by contemporary scientific research. With modern chemical tools and guidance from ancient wisdom, researchers could examine and optimize harvest practices for high quality botanical products.
Ian Cole is a research associate at the Montgomery Botanical Center in Coral Gables, Florida. Michael Balick, PhD, is vice president for botanical science and director and philecology curator of the Institute of Economic Botany at the New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx, New York.
Acknowledgements This research was supported by the City University of New York and The New York Botanical Garden Science Graduate Fellowship. Michael J. Balick acknowledges the following sources of support for his research on Micronesian plants: Edward P. Bass and The Philecology Trust, V. Kann Rasmussen Foundation, Marisla Foundation, and The Prospect Hill Foundation.
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Source : HerbalGram. 2010;85:50-56 American Botanical Council
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